In
order to exist in the world, individuals must be able to take a stand,
change positions, and express themselves by means of word and
deed. The variety of stances and postures which characterize
human beings is related to the assumption of an upright, bipedal
carriage. While the ability to stand upright and walk on two feet
is a common feature of the human species, acquired during a lengthy
period of evolution, this skill must be learned anew by each person in
the course of his or her individual growth. The human frame
allows for a comfortable upright stance, but anatomy alone does not
guarantee that such a stance will be attained. Factors
influencing personal growth and development may either facilitate or
impede the establishment of postural balance. The posture that an
individual habitually assumes reflects the developmental history of the
person. That history is recorded in the musculo-skeletal system
as a pattern of balance or imbalance in the segments of the body in the
field of gravity. The word "posture" is derived from the Latin
word ponere, meaning "to
place or put." Thus posture includes an active, assertive element
by means of which we place or put ourselves into position.
Posture is intimately related to movement.
There are many ways to understand movement in relation to life.
According to Moshe Feldenkrais, "Without movement, life is
unthinkable." [1] Movement, however, takes different forms.
In human beings, a distinction can be drawn between motility and
mobility. In terms of this distinction, motility
refers to the basic pulsatory movements that are associated with
spontaneous functions, such as the beating of the heart, the
respiratory
process, and peristalsis in the digestive tract. Mobility, on the
other hand, is chiefly represented by the displacement of a material
body in space. Walking, running, and jumping are examples of
human mobility. Whereas plant tissue is motile when viewed alive
under the microscope, human beings (as well as most other members of
the
animal kingdom) have the added quality of mobility.
Such mobility is related to posture, for the stance we take in life -
our position in the face of life's challenges - is integrally
associated with out ability to move and with the quality, range, and
scope of the movements we execute. In the course of their
personal
history, individuals assume basic postural attitudes as a result of
movements that have been selected and learned under the pressure of
specific environmental conditions. One of the results of this
process is the development of personality.
There is a relationship between personality and character, though the
two terms are often used interchangeably. Alexander Lowen has
suggested that "It would be well to differentiate the concept of
personality from that of character... The personality is an
expression of the life force in a person and is probably the extension
of that force into the environment... The main thing about the
character is the fact that it represents a typical pattern of behavior
or an habitual direction." [2] The word "character" is derived
from
Greek and Latin words meaning "engraving tool," or the mark made by
such a tool. The personality of an individual is engraved in his
or her character. The word "personality" itself is derived from
the word persona, originally
meaning "mask." In classical drama, the actor wore a mask in
order to conceal his true face. The role of the actor, however,
could be understood in terms of his movements and his voice. For
the purposes of the present discussion, it is enough to emphasize that
posture, movement, and personality are intimately connected. The
nature of the connection can best be understood by considering movement
in relation to human growth.
Both motility and mobility are basic aspects of movement that evolve
throughout the course of personal development. Of
the two aspects of movement, motility is the more primitive.
Cells, for example, are motile, but not all cells in the body are
mobile. Sperm cells belong to the latter category. By means
of the whip-like action of their flagella, or tails, they are able to
propel themselves in a swimming motion. Sperm cells are able to
travel. Epithelial cells, which line various body cavities, such
as the respiratory tract, may be ciliated, and through their serpentine
action they assist in the movement of foreign particles in a given
direction. Their movements are coordinated. On
the other hand, the cells that compose the tissue of striated muscles
change their shape as they contract or expand, yet they remain
stationary with respect to their relative positions in the
muscle. The basic pulsatory function of all living cells and the
undulatory processes of cytoplasmic streaming are primary instances of
motility. It follows that in living forms motility is the basis
of mobility. The quality of any organismic movement may thus be
understood, at one level, as an expression of the intensity of
biological pulsation.
One of the characteristics of most animal organisms is the capacity to
move independently in space. In human beings, this ability is
evident prior to birth, as the kicking of the unborn child in the womb
of the mother indicates. Such kicking may be felt by placing a
hand against the mother's abdomen during the later stages of
pregnancy. After birth, the movements of the infant are
obvious. The motility of the infant organism can be seen in the
ripples of expressive movement that pass over the tiny abdomen and
face. Gross mobility is present with the movement of the limbs
and the turning of the head as the baby lies on his or her back.
The powerful sucking movements of the infant at the breast are an
early, clear example of coordinated activity. Immediately after
birth, the eyes of the baby are open and mobile. What
characterizes the variety of movements of the human child during the
process of growth and development is the increasing coordination and
meaningfulness of activity. At first, for example, the movements
of the baby's limbs seem random as the infant hits and kicks prior to
attaining the ability to execute such actions as lifting the head or
rolling over. However, such seemingly random movements are not
without significance. Mabel Elsworth Todd writes:
"In the newborn infant, the spine is straight and very flexible, with
all joints moveable. The first muscles to attain power are those
of the lumbar spine and pelvis... By much vigorous kicking and
crying during the first months of its life, the baby develops those
muscles which are needed to produce and stabilize the lumbar curve into
its convex direction toward the front, to counteract the primary
concavity of the thoracic curve." [3]
In the process of individual development, the basic motility of the
growing person is translated into patterns of movement. Thus an
infant learns to lift and turn its head, to roll over, to push itself
up into a sitting position, to crawl, to walk, and to stand, all in an
order which involves the gradual integration of movements into an
increasingly diversified and coordinated set of responses. How
the infant is handled and whether the baby is given firm yet gentle
support during the course of his or her early apprenticeship are
factors crucial to the unfolding of a comfortable posture in
life. The history of the developing person is etched into the
patterns of neuro-muscular activity that constitute the repertoire of
movements of the individual. In addition, vital functions are
indissolubly linked to patterns of movement. This is most
evident with respect to breathing. Again, Mabel Todd comments:
"The apparatus for breathing, which appeared simultaneously in the
racial pattern as vertebrates came onto the land, continue to be
closely associated in the growth of individual organisms and their
functions. They are intimately related through mechanical and
nervous tie-ups between appendicular and respiratory structures, also
between both these and the cardiovascular system by which blood is
conveyed from heart to lungs for aerating and back to the heart with
its load of oxygen." [4]
Mobility in humans, therefore, evolves out of the basic motility of
living functioning and results in the establishment of a structural
framework involving posture and patterns of movement. That
framework then delimits the basic pulsatory rhythms and functions of
the organism. Motility and mobility continue to be intimately
related throughout the life of the individual in the form of
personality and character. Just as movement patterns and posture
are learned in the context of the relationship of the child to the
surrounding world, personality and character can be seen as the result
of a process of self-education in relation to the formative environment.
Given the reciprocal influence between motility and mobility in human
functioning, it is inevitable that one of the fundamental ingredients
in posture and movement will be the emotional disposition of the
individual. Such a disposition or pattern is reflective of
personal history. The phenomenon of emotion, which literally
refers to movement (L. emouvere:
"to move out"), can be understood in light of the experience of
pleasure and pain. In terms of the "pleasure principle"
elucidated by Sigmund Freud, human beings are motivated by drives that
lead to basic biological gratification. In Freud's view, such
gratification is accomplished through the release of organismic
tension. Such organismic tension beyond a certain point - as in
hunger or sex - is experienced as painful. In his book Beyond the Pleasure Principle,
Freud makes an interesting comment: "... we would readily express our
gratitude," he writes, "to any philosophical or psychological theory
which was able to inform us of the meaning of the feelings of pleasure
and unpleasure which act so imperatively on us." [5] On the basis
of Wilhelm Reich's investigations, it is possible to suggest that the
foundation of pleasure and pain lies in the fundamental motility of the
living organism. The pulsatory quality of biological motility,
involving alternating expansion and contraction of the organism, leads
to the accumulation of tension. The homeostasis of the organism
requires the release of such tension, which is experienced as
pleasure. All emotional responses are rooted in the
build-up and release of biological energy. We all know the
experience of exploding in rage, bursting into tears, convulsing with
grief, crying out in pain, striking out in anger, and jumping with
joy. All of these expressions of emotion entail an opening up and
a moving out on the part of the organism. The capacity for such
emotional expression is filtered through the limiting postural
structures and movement patterns that have been learned in the course
of personal history. It can be seen that just as human beings
undergo an apprenticeship in movement - an obvious example of which is
learning to walk - people also go through a period of personal tutelage
in which they learn a specific range of self-expression on an emotional
level. Posture, movement, and personality are thus integrated
emotionally in terms of the character structure of the
individual.
While a motor component to human growth and development
is evident, it is also true that the
basic substance of human experience includes sensation and
feeling. The word "feeling" can be traced back to root words
meaning "to grope." Sensation, as it is defined in the
dictionary, denotes "excited feeling." Through the
study of the nervous system, it is known that sensation and feeling are
linked to movement. Sensory experience in human beings is related to
the transmission of impulses along nerve pathways to the sensory cortex
of the brain. These impulses may originate at the surface of the
body or deep within the organism. The totality of such impulses,
integrated neurologically, is a central aspect of human self-perception
and awareness. While sensation itself is evidently much older
than
the evolution of the nervous system, it is clear that in human beings
the evolution of the nervous system has occurred in relation to the
organization and coordination of sensation and feeling. Moshe
Feldenkrais has drawn attention to the role of sensory experience in
human development. He declares: "Subjective reality is the first,
the richest, and the most important to our emotional, mental, and
physical well-being... The nervous system, glandular balance,
digestive organization, cleansing apparatus, skin, defecation, and
micturation all provide an immense amount of sensory stimulation, far
more than we usually care to think." [6]
By "subjective reality," Feldenkrais means those
sensations which have their origin in the internal, vegetative
functioning of the organism. Similarly, Wilhelm Reich has
stressed the importance of "organ sensation" as a primary basis of
self-awareness. [7] Reich, Feldenkrais, and others have drawn
attention to the manner in which primary sensory experience is subject
to a process of apprenticeship in the course of individual
development. Feldenkrais remarks that in the course of personal
growth, "Step-by-step subjective reality will give way to a slowly
growing complex of sensations of a special kind - sensations which
surrounding people approve or condemn." [8] In other words,
fundamental self-perception with respect to basic organismic processes
is formed in the context of environmental support or rejection.
[9] This process is part of the "education of the self" that
makes up the personal history of the individual. The effect of
such education becomes evident in the postural attitudes and the
movement patterns of the adult human being.
In order to comprehend the significance of posture and movement in
relation to personality, it is necessary to view human functioning as a
whole. Such a vantage point makes it possible to understand the
fundamental physical basis of personal security and balance that is an
elemental part of self-esteem and emotional equilibrium. It then
becomes possible to appreciate that psyche and soma are united at the
level of the deep energetic processes of the individual. The
mental
world represents and expresses what takes place in the body, and the
body finds its life extended and rationalized in the realm of
consciousness. [10] The advantage of considering personality in
terms of the concrete physical coordinates of posture and movement lies
in the fact that posture and movement are objectively observable
aspects of human individuality. Human beings can, to a
considerable extent, be understood in terms of clearly identifiable
traits that, in the course of individual development, have become
structured into specific patterns of movement and behavior correlated
with characteristic forms of experience.
Recognition of the interrelationship of posture, movement, and
personality has practical implications. The old parable of the
wine and the skins serves to illustrate this point. One cannot
pour new wine into old skins, for to do so will cause the wine to
spoil. If old wine, however, is poured into new skins, the skins
may burst. In the practical task of altering the human condition
along more positive lines, function and structure - experience and
behavior - must be respected in their essential unity. In this
fashion the growth of the person can be more effectively promoted.
Movement
and Growth
In considering posture,
movement, and personality as interrelated facets of being human, it is
important to recognize that these features of individual
existence are reflective of a person's history. All human beings
who are free of congenital deformities are born with a certain genetic
constitution which represents a more-or-less workable
inheritance. At the same
time, each newborn infant is a developing human creature subject to the
demands of his or her own organism as they are mediated by the
environment. Posture, movement, and personality in the adult
individual will reflect the history of the interaction between the
growing human and
the world.
After the baby is born, the process of learning to live in the world
begins. It is necessary to realize that the infant has definite
needs, and whether or not these needs are met is critical for the
development of the new person. The quality of the child's contact
with the mother and others who are close to the baby will be either
positive or negative. If positive, the free functioning of the
newborn organism will be nurtured. The primary means of such
nurturance during the early postnatal period and for some time
afterwards is through "touch," extending the use of that term to
include eye contact and voice in addition to stimulation of the
skin. Obviously, the role of the mother is important in this
regard.
In a sense, the mother-child relationship is the prototype of all later
relationships, at least as far as questions of
fundamental biological security are concerned. This is not to
deny the importance of the father. Freud states:
"I cannot think of any need in childhood as strong as the need for the
father's protection." [11] The infant and the very young child,
however, do not reflect upon the significance of the father as
protector. Rather, what is experienced directly is the need for
contact with the mother. This is most evident with regard to
breastfeeding, a function which only the lactating female can
provide. In strictly biological terms, the body of the mother is
the immediate environment of the infant after birth. Even if a
man should serve as a mother substitute, the natural differences
between
the body of the female and that of the male will come into play. In
this regard, Lowen remarks: "In my opinion, it is
contact with the mother's body that is particularly important in the
early years. I don't believe that a father can substitute for a
mother
in this respect; his body lacks a quality of softness that hers
has." [12]
If the mother is intended by nature to be the primary person in the
infant's and young child's life, this does not mean that the father's
presence is insignificant. In fact, those fathers who make
genuine, positive contact with the infant and child, in addition to the
indirect support and protection which they provide, are important
contributors to the baby's sense of well-being. If the father is
present at the baby's birth, he may well be the first human to look
into the infant's eyes. In contrast to previously popular views,
there is currently a growing recognition that the infant is capable of
making eye contact directly after birth. [13] While such contact
may not involve an active focusing or a precise differentiation of
images on the part of the infant, the emotional quality of eye contact
with the baby can be felt. The quality of this contact serves as
part of the apprenticeship of the new being in the world and is
important to the child's basic sense of security and involvement in
life. It has been said that the eyes are the "windows of the
soul," and the soul of the infant is exposed to the world of other
people's experience through eye contact. The eyes, via the optic nerves, are
functionally an extension of the brain. There is, no doubt, a
positive effect on the newborn infant resulting from open, honest, and
loving expressiveness emanating from those persons in attendance.
The adult capacity for human intimacy is largely established on the
basis of early childhood relationships. Writers such as Ashley
Montagu have discussed in some detail the importance to the infant of
pleasurable skin contact with other human beings. [14] In
addition, direct observation of animals in the wild has substantiated
the particular importance to primates of contact with the mother.
For example, Jane Goodall, in her study of chimpanzees remarks:
"... we have been repeatedly impressed by the extent to which the
growing [chimpanzee] child depends on his mother. Who would have
dreamed that a three-year-old chimpanzee might die if he lost his
mother? Who would have guessed that at five years of age a
[chimpanzee] child might still be suckling and sleeping with its mother
at night?" [15] The chimpanzee is acknowledged to be the living
species most closely related to human beings. The findings of
various
scientific studies and the evidence of anthropology attest
to the importance of the dependency period of infancy and early
childhood with respect to establishing a sense of security and a basic
trust in life. It must be emphasized, however, that the quality of the contact between the
child and the persons in the immediate environment is what is
decisive. In this sense, it is not enough simply to hold an
infant; the warmth, vitality, and caring of the touch are
important. The motility of the adult organism makes an impression
upon the child. Once again, the posture, movement, and
personality of the parents or parent substitutes are integral to the
development of the
posture, movement, and personality in the child.
One of the principal ways in which the motility of the infant and child
is regulated at a physiological level is by means of respiration.
Breathing and biological energy are intimately related. Human
beings obtain caloric energy by eating food, and oxygen is required in
order to free the energy of foodstuffs for the body's use. Lowen
has commented on the importance of oxygen in this
process. He writes: "The combustion of food is not unlike the
combustion that occurs in a wood fire which also requires oxygen to
maintain the process. In both cases the rate of combustion is
related to the amount of available oxygen." [16] In a similar
vein, Reich observes: "Poor breathing must do severe damage
to the internal respiration of the organs, i.e., to the supply of
oxygen and the elimination of carbon dioxide." [17] Certainly,
there are several pathological conditions, such as asthma and
emphysema, that are recognized to involve disturbed
respiration. What is not so widely recognized is the fact that
far less than adequate respiration may prevail in the absence of
diagnosed pathology. The effects of such disturbed respiration
are necessarily related to a disturbance of motility and energy
level. In addition, since deep and optimal respiration involves
extensive participation of the skeletal musculature, habitually
inhibited breathing will involve patterns of chronic imbalance in the
major muscle groups of the body, thus affecting posture and range of
movement. It is significant that in the infant the establishment
of a healthy breathing pattern is related to nursing. Lowen
writes: "An infant sucks air into its lungs just as it sucks milk into
its mouth and digestive system. And because both functions use a
common mechanism, a disturbance in one of the activities will affect
the other." [18] In its connection with breathing, the
significance of breastfeeding is sufficiently important to warrant a
closer look at some factors involved.
If one observes an infant at the breast under favorable circumstances,
it is evident that for the baby breastfeeding is a pleasurable
experience. Not only is the baby receiving nourishment, but the
contact with the mother's body is an obvious source of
gratification. I do not think that it is possible to compare
favorably the experience of a warm, alive nipple in the baby's mouth to
an artificial nipple used with a bottle. The primary distinction
is that in one case the nipple is alive, in the other it is not.
Physiologically, the mother's nipple can be compared to other areas on
the surface of the body that are congested with blood, such as the
lips. While it is possible to comment on the mechanical
superiority of a real nipple, it may be more satisfactory to illustrate
the difference between the real and the artificial teat by an analogy
that can be appreciated by both men and women. In contemporary
Western culture, kissing on the lips between a male and a female who
share a mutual attraction is a pleasurable experience. Would it
be possible to obtain the same degree of pleasure by kissing an
artificial, rubberized set of lips, even if one were being held in the
arms of one's beloved? No one relatively free of
inner conflict regarding the experience of kissing could fail to prefer
a real set of lips to a non-living substitute. The same may be
said to refer to the child during the act of nursing.
Breastfeeding is pleasurable to the infant and stimulates deep
breathing and organismic expansion in a natural way. It is also
an act that establishes a bond of security between mother and child. The
infant learns to suck - literally to draw life into itself; and in this
process the baby learns that natural aggression is both pleasurable in
itself and nurturing in the result. In this
process the mother achieves the pleasure and satisfaction of added
closeness to her child.
Another factor which affects the developing posture, movement patterns,
and personality of the child is the way in which the baby is
handled. As with all elements of the adult-child relationship, a
significant question to ask is: how would the adult - were the
situation reversed - choose to be treated? In this regard, it is
evident that many adults and parents do not view young children and
babies as actual persons. Yet the infant and the young child are
indeed persons and are distinguished from adults partly by the greater
degree of malleability and openness in their functioning. This
heightened plasticity of newborns, infants, and children means that
attention must be given to how the young human being is handled.
The head, neck, and torso should be carefully supported when the infant
is picked up. Generally, such support needs to be provided in all
instances when the baby is carried and moved. Not to provide such
support is to create unnecessary strain throughout the baby's
body. It is a simple matter, when lifting the baby from the
supine position, to slip one's arm underneath the small torso,
supporting the head and neck with one hand, while using the other hand
to support the baby's lower back and pelvis. When the baby is
lifted in this way and brought up into a position against the chest of
the adult, firm support is given along the axis of the infant's body,
and the lifting is a comfortable and pleasurable experience. When
the baby is held, contact can continue to be provided along the axis of
the body while the head is gently supported. The basic postural
reflexes in the young child are in the process of development, and the
manner in which adults provide support and contact is part of the young
human being's organic apprenticeship.
In spite of the importance of providing adequate support to the infant
and child during the dependency period, several instances of parental
misuse are extremely common. That such instances are common can
be easily verified by direct observation of parent-child interaction in
public settings. For example, it is not unusual to see very
young children lifted suddenly into the air by the wrists or by one
arm. Similarly, when carried, many young children find themselves
grasped by a single arm of the parent in such a fashion that the
child's back is pressed against the parent's hip or ribcage, with the
parent's arm hooked around the child's midriff in the area of the
diaphragm. This may be a good position for executing the Heimlich
maneuver or for choking off the breathing of an opponent in
hand-to-hand
combat, but it does no good to the child, who is being transported as
if he or she were a sack of potatoes. What is at issue is
not necessarily the intentional inflicting of pain on the child, as in
the
case of direct physical or verbal hostility - but rather a form of
unthinking interference in the natural functioning of a dependent being
whose basic motility and neuro-muscular coordination are in the process
of formation.
It is possible to elucidate the significance of adequate support for
the infant and child in terms of the overall issue of security in life,
and this has been done with considerable insight by both Feldenkrais
and Reich, whose complementary analyses have been
elaborated independently. A brief consideration of their findings
is instructive.
In his work with infants and young children, Reich reports observing an
instance of "falling anxiety" in a three-week old baby. According
to Reich's description, the infant showed signs of marked anxiety as he
was taken from his bath and laid on his back upon the table.
Reich suggests that the movement of withdrawing the child from the bath
may have been too abrupt or that the cooling of the still wet skin as
the baby was lifted may have contributed to the anxiety response.
In any event, he reports that the infant "... began to cry
violently, stretched his arms backward as though to gain support, tried
to bring his head forward, showed sheer panic in his eyes, and could
not be quieted. As soon as the attempt was again made to lay him
down, the falling anxiety appeared just as violently." [19] In
Reich's
view, "...
the sensation of falling is a purely biophysical occurrence brought
about by rapid withdrawal of the biological energy from the periphery
of the vegetative center of the organism." [20] He concludes
that, whatever the immediate stimulus to the falling anxiety, "... the
mechanism remains the same: loss of peripheral plasma motility,
accompanied by a loss of the sense of equilibrium and of equilibrium
itself." [21]
Reich's analysis of the phenomenon of falling
anxiety is complemented by the research of Moshe Feldenkrais, whose
perspective is oriented toward comprehending the conditioning of the
basic neurological reflexes in the human infant. Feldenkrais
comments on the relative lack of conditioned reflexes in the human
infant, when compared with other species in the animal kingdom.
He notes, however, that if the infant "... is suddenly lowered, or if
support is sharply withdrawn, a violent contraction of the flexors with
halt of breath is observed, followed by crying, accelerated pulse and
general vasomotor disturbance." [22] In considering this
situation, Feldenkrais makes the following statement: "The similarity
of reaction of a newborn infant to withdrawal of support, and that of
fright or fear in the adult is remarkable. The reaction to
falling is present at birth, i.e., inborn and independent of individual
experience. It is therefore right to speak of the
instinctive reaction to falling." [23]
According to Feldenkrais, the instinctive nature of falling
anxiety can be understood in terms of the physiology of the human
nervous system. The vestibular branch of the VIIIth cranial nerve
(vestibulocochlear nerve) supplies the organs of equilibrium in the
inner ear. The semicircular canals serve the function of
registering changes in acceleration of the body, while the otolithic
apparatus provides orientation with respect to slow movements.
Feldenkrais concludes that any "... sudden, sharp lowering of a
new-born infant elicits the whole series of reflexes which are the
reaction of the baby to falling. The first experience of anxiety
is therefore connected with a stimulation of the vestibular branch of
the VIIIth cranial
nerve." [24]
In Feldenkrais's view, there is an
evolutionary basis for understanding the unconditioned, reflexive
nature of falling anxiety in the human infant. Human beings
are descended from arboreal primates whose life in the trees presumably
constituted a selective pressure favoring an anxiety response to
falling. Violent contraction in the area of the thoracic cage,
holding of the breath, and flexion of the head (the "body pattern" of
anxiety) offer greater protection and a chance of survival in case of a
fall. Lowen, citing the anthropological study of John
Pfeifer on human origins, makes the same point, relating species
considerations to factors in personal history. Lowen writes: "The
phylogenetic history of the human animal reflected in the human
infant's need to feel secure is the predisposing cause of falling
anxiety. The effective cause is the lack of holding and physical
contact with the mother." [25]
It is clear that the issue of security reaches deep into the needs of
human beings and that the appropriate handling of infants and children
is crucial
to the satisfaction of the natural requirements of young humans for
a healthy upbringing. The need for security and contact also
extends to the need for an environment free from excessive noise and
from overstimulation in general. [26] It is evident that social
conditions in contemporary society militate against the
satisfaction of this requirement.
Among those practices interfering with freedom of movement of the
infant and toddler is the custom of fitting diapers too tightly or too
thickly. Such practices may provide a convenience to the person
responsible for changing the diapers, but such a habit interferes with
the placement of the child's legs, causing a rotation at the hip
joints. The use of playpens encourages the young child to pull
himself or herself up into the standing position before coordination is
sufficiently developed, thus affecting neuro-muscular balance.
Habitually placing the baby on his or her stomach makes it difficult
for the infant to extend his or her gaze over a wide range, and the
attempt to compensate for this awkward position will create stresses in
the baby's body. It is known that the young child is not capable
of comfortably exercising control of the anal sphincter until
approximately before the beginning of the third year, and it follows
that "toilet training" before that time will result not only in
constricting personality traits but in corresponding patterns of
spasticity and holding in the musculature. Even in the
absence of adequate knowledge of child development, authentic respect
for the child as a person and willingness to let the child grow at his
or her own pace can help to prevent many disturbances in human
functioning. Unfortunately, such respect is not generally
evident. Partly, this is due to the fact that
it is not enough simply to "let the child be." Adults must
actively attend to the child's needs, and this means
taking responsibility for making positive contact with the young
person. The capacity for assuming such responsibility, however,
is related integrally to the posture, movement, and
personality of the adults in question. As the saying goes, the
educators themselves must be educated. This obviously presents a
significant problem.
It is interesting that the use of speech, control of the eliminative
processes, assumption of the upright posture, and weaning are
accomplished in a relatively secure fashion by the end of the third
year. It might be said that the beginning of the fourth year of
life represents a kind of provisional consolidation of the organic
learning processes that have been underway. It is an observable
fact, however, that the natural progression in the development of
skills is often hindered by parental expectations. The child is
pressured to perform beyond his or her capacities in order to provide
parents with some compensation for their own sense of insecurity.
Yet no one can exceed the limits of biological development or skip
entire stages of growth without suffering the consequences. In order to
comply with parental directives, the child must mobilize will power in
order to achieve tasks that are better accomplished at a later
time. In Feldenkrais's words, "A sense of the futility of
life, tiredness, and a wish to give it all up is a result of overtaxing
the conscious control with the tasks the reflexive and subconscious
nervous activity is better fitted to perform." [27]
Feldenkrais makes the following observation: "... there is a kind
of learning that goes with growth. You cannot skate before you
can walk, no matter how clever you are, even if you are a genius.
You must first learn to walk. You cannot walk before you
crawl. If you learn to walk before you crawl, you will be a
cripple. You cannot learn to speak before you are vertical.
You know why you cannot? In the human system each part comes into
function in sequence one after another. The functioning helps the
growth at each stage as a new part of the brain comes into dominance,
and changes the entire way of action. This type of learning must
proceed at its own pace. We have no say in it. However,
because this learning is done under human direction, it may be done in
a different way than was intended by nature." [28]
The natural unfolding of the organic learning process in human
development, with assistance rather than hindrance from the familial
environment, has been depicted by Reich as crucial to the
development of the capacity for independent action and mature judgment
by the person. Reich has designated as
"self-regulation" the functioning which
embodies such a capacity.
It is noteworthy that the sexual function in human beings, which is so
clearly a central feature of life, is a realm that is characterized by
internal and external compulsion. In spite of
the many forms in which hostility toward sexuality is expressed, the
common denominator of these negative attitudes is a rejection of
natural bodily processes. Typically, such an orientation begins
to be acquired during early childhood when the healthy curiosity of the
young boy or girl is stifled or perverted by negative environmental
influences. During the Victorian age, children were widely held
to be innocent of sexual feelings and impulses. This perspective
was challenged by Freud and by others. The Victorian
attitude has been supplanted by modern, sophisticated points of view in
which children are acknowledged to be curious about sex and are often
exposed at an early age to worldly, adult opinions. Lowen has
argued persuasively, however, that contemporary sexual
"sophistication" is a defense against genuine sexual feeling.
[29] Between the extremes of rigid sexual suppression and
inhibition on the one hand and permissive overstimulation on the other,
natural sexual self-acceptance and positive gender
identification are hard-pressed to find their way.
Negative forces notwithstanding, the fact remains that children are
interested in sex. When this interest is met with
disapproval or prurient interference by significant adults, the result
is not only a disturbance in sexual functioning, but a disturbance in
posture, movement, and personality as well. Such disturbances
occur because sexual awareness is a bodily experience which can only be
suppressed or altered by means of a disruption in unitary
psycho-physical functioning. The basic mechanism of such
disruptions is an inhibition in the respiratory process. This, in
turn, is anchored in chronic muscular spasticities which
restrict organismic motility.
It is not difficult to understand why an inhibition in the respiratory
process accompanies the suppression of sexual feeling, since holding
the breath is a principal means of numbing sensation. One can
observe in oneself the tendency to hold the breath in the event of a
painful injury, such as a cut finger, or in the case of a
toothache. Similarly, in the child, sexual feeling will be cut
off by means of holding the breath when there is the threat of
punishment or parental disapproval. In this manner the child
deadens his or her anxiety. Since sexual feelings are localized
to a considerable extent in the pelvic and lower abdominal regions of
the body, spasticities in the musculature of these areas will be
particularly involved in sexual inhibition. With anxiety, the
participation of the pelvic and abdominal segments in breathing will be
restricted. If sexual overstimulation has been the case, then the
patterns of respiratory disturbance and muscular spasticity will be
different than in instances where there is a history of
clearly defined and consistent prohibition of sexual expression.
In this regard, Lowen has noted the significance of muscular
contractions at the base of the skull which serve to disconnect sexual
sensation - and bodily sensation in general - from awareness at a
higher
level. [30] An overall rigidity of the body structure may
likewise be present in such circumstances, or there may be an
underlying holding pattern in the intrinsic musculature belying
the apparent balance at the surface. All such factors
are relevant to the sexual functioning and the
psychology of the individual. In this regard, some comments on
Freud's
perspective are in order.
As is well known, Freud used the term "Oedipus complex" to describe the
dynamics of the erotic attraction of young children to the parent of
the opposite sex. [31] Concerning Freud's theory, it is
important to realize that the erotic feelings of the young child,
though "sexual," are not the same as those of adults, either in terms
of their intensity or their manner of expression. Personal
reflection bears out this view. Who, for example, remembering
the surge of sexual feelings accompanying puberty and adolescence,
would compare them in urgency and forcefulness to the erotic feelings
of early childhood? This being said, it remains true that a
provisional consolidation and
integration of personal functioning during the period roughly from four
to seven years of age involves emerging feelings of sexual pleasure
that are often coupled with romantic attachments. These feelings
are rooted in bodily sensations and are part of the natural
development of the child's self-image. [32] Under
favorable circumstances, personality formation during this period lays
the foundation for a secure sense of gender identity. In
actuality, however, circumstances are not often favorable.
Freud's theory of the Oedipus complex provides some important insights
into
the nature of the problems that frequently arise.
Based on his analysis of his own
experience and
that of others, Freud concluded that the young
child typically develops an erotic attraction to the parent of the
opposite sex. This is accompanied by the experience of jealousy
in relation
to the parent
of the same sex. The child thus becomes caught up in a "triangle"
(frequently accentuated by sibling rivalry), a triangle that
is characterized by actual or potential conflict. According to
Freud,
the experience of anxiety in this
context (owing to the fear of punishment) culminates in the
child's
repressing his or her sexual feelings. A period
of sexual latency then commences and
lasts until puberty, at which time physiological changes stimulate a
renewed efflorescence of sexual feelings. Freud
considered the Oedipus complex and the latency period to be
biologically rooted in prehistoric experiences and events that left
a phylogenetic impression on the human psyche. In his opinion,
the failure to repress satisfactorily the sexual attachments of early
childhood is responsible for neurosis. [33]
Freud's view that the Oedipus complex is a biologically determined,
invariable occurrence in human beings is subject to criticism on the
grounds that the set of conflicts and attachments that he
describes results from relationships that apply only under
specific social and cultural conditions. This is the criticism
advanced by Reich,
as well as by Bronislaw Malinowski and others. [34] It was Reich
who, following upon Freud's initial insights, discovered
that unresolved sexual and psychological conflicts are anchored in
disturbed functioning at the somatic level. A similar conclusion
has been reached independently by other
investigators, such as Feldenkrais and Ida Rolf.
Freud's view that the first several years in a person's life, including
the Oedipal phase, are the foundation for later personal growth is now
a widely
accepted
principal in understanding human development. Individual
growth proceeds in the direction from "head to tail," and the
establishment
of the capacity for a comfortable erect posture, graceful and easy
locomotion, and a solid sense of sexual identity is achieved
provisionally by about the age of seven years. In this respect
it should be noted that the basic function of self-support provided by
an
easy upright posture is related to the stability of the lower part of
the body - the legs and pelvic structure. It is this same part of
the body which houses the genitals. The capacity for genuine
pleasure is based on a person's ability to take a firm stand on behalf
of his or her needs, including the need for sexual gratification.
Because of the head-to-tail (cephalo-caudal)
direction of human
development, disturbances in sexual functioning necessarily reflect any
problems with respect to the satisfaction of early needs for nurturing,
support, contact, and understanding. Feldenkrais has pointed out
the connection between sexual insecurity and the overall
history of personal development. "Sexual maturity," he writes,
"arrives at the end of the development period and is the most
vulnerable function because of that... Similarly, it is
impossible to correct or reform adequately the general use of oneself
without recovering sexual spontaneity." [35] In the same vein,
Reich declares: "The child enters the highly critical Oedipal phase
with attitudes preformed, at least in broad outline, if not in their
final detail. The Oedipus complex may be likened to a lens
through which the rays of the impulses are refracted." [36]
While it is unquestionable that later childhood, puberty,
and adolescence are important phases in the development of the posture,
movement, and personality of the individual, it is also the
case that the events and processes of these years reflect
the prior development of the person during infancy and early
childhood.
Under unfavorable circumstances, the first years of life represent a
period during which the natural motility and mobility of the human
organism become disturbed. This is followed by a period of
sexual "latency" during which more-or-less compulsive, rigidly
structured training
is imposed on the young person as part of the process of
socialization. The period of puberty and adolescence then becomes
the time when attempts are made to see that the young adult is "broken
in," traditionally by means of sexual frustration, but more recently by
means of the inculcation of socially condoned sexual
impulsiveness. Under happier
circumstances, the period of late childhood, puberty, and adolescence
is a time when the fundamental security and the solid personal and
sexual identity established during the first seven years of life serve
as the foundation for the adventurous undertaking of learning the ways
of the world. In this ad-venture,
the young person is ready to meet and deal with what comes his or her
way. In the absence of significant early childhood confusions and
conflicts concerning sexual identity, the period of puberty and
adolescence is a time of consolidation of one's biological
heritage. There is the healthy feeling of the emergence of sexual
urges impelling one toward the exploration of love.
This deepens the sense of independence of the person and provides the
positive basis for an affirmative attitude toward assuming
responsibility for the tasks and challenges of adulthood. That
this scenario is seldom enacted under the conditions of contemporary
upbringing of children is unfortunate. Nevertheless, there is
a natural urge toward healthy functioning, and one is justified in
seeking to depict a healthy process of growth and development, in
contrast to the current state of affairs. What, however, may be
considered an accurate index of healthy sexual functioning? This
question requires serious reflection. In order to prepare the
way, it is necessary to consider in further detail some
aspects of human posture.
Aspects
of Posture
The assumption of an upright posture as a comfortable stance of
the human species
has been accomplished as a result of complex,
evolutionary developments that have occurred gradually. To say
that a
comfortable, erect stature has been established as a fundamental
characteristic of humanity, however, is obviously not correct.
Countless individuals do not feel comfortable standing on their own
feet. The tendency toward lower back pain, for example, is
widespread in contemporary society, and some authors have attributed
this fact to an incomplete evolutionary shift from a quadrupedal to a
bipedal stance. Isaac Asimov, in discussing
the common problem of a "slipped disk," refers to this phenomenon as
"...the price we still pay (among others) for getting up on our hind
legs some hundreds of thousands of years ago... It must be
pointed out that the vertebral column is not completely adjusted to the
new situation." [37] However, since the skeletal frame is
positioned in space principally by means of tonus and balance of the
muscular system, the question arises whether the stresses and strains
of the erect carriage are not associated with dystonic patterns in the
soft tissue that are the result of personal rather than evolutionary
history. Richard Leaky has remarked: "To all
intents and purposes the physical evolution of humans all over the
world was complete by about twenty thousand years ago. We do not
see any further major changes in the skulls, teeth and skeletons of
human beings. But what now begins to evolve very rapidly are
ideas, skills, and ways of living." [38] May it not be the case
that, as a whole, human beings have generally failed to put to
appropriate use their evolutionary endowment - a balanced human frame -
by means of organizing a comfortable upright posture and bipedal
carriage facilitated by a coordinated set of neuro-muscular responses?
While the anatomical and structural considerations concerning balanced
posture in human beings are important, they are ultimately as complex
as the multiple interrelationships among all the bones, muscles, and
nerves of the body. It would be possible for a single individual
to exhaust several lifetimes in the investigation of these various
interrelationships. The accumulation of such data, however, would
not in itself be useful. Only with the organization of the data
into a coherent perspective would it be possible to put such
information to practical use. The perspective itself would
necessarily
be determined by considerations other than the data alone. For
the purposes of the discussion at hand, the issues of comfortable
balance, high energy level, and the potential for graceful, harmonious
self-expression are some of the primary considerations. The
framework suggested by Wilhelm Reich's elaboration of the segmental
character of human structure provides a necessary focus.
According to Reich, there are seven basic functional groups of muscles
that can be identified in human beings: these are the ocular, oral,
cervical, thoracic, diaphragmatic, abdominal, and pelvic segments,
which are arranged along the axis of the body in transverse
rings. In Reich's view the segmental
arrangement of the muscular groups in the human body is rooted in deep
biological processes that reflect evolutionary development.
Reich states: "Segmental function is a much more primitive mode of
living functioning than that found in highly developed animals.
It is most clearly seen in worms. In the higher vertebrates, only
the segmental structure of the spine,
which corresponds to the segments of the spinal cord and the spinal
nerves, and the segmental arrangement of the autonomic ganglia,
indicate the origin of the vertebrates from segmentally functioning
primitive organisms." [39] Reich's point is that there is, in
humans, a segmental
arrangement of groups of muscles that reflects in its functioning the
primitive form development of animal life. By relating such
segmentation to expressive movement and emotion, it is possible to
appreciate the development of structure out
of function in human beings. The actual relationship between form
development and
selective pressures in evolutionary terms is an interesting question to
be dealt with in another context.
In Reich's view, an absence of excessive, chronic muscular tension in
the segments of the body allows for the free motility of energetic
functioning. On the other hand, chronic spasticities in the
various functional segments constitute a kind of armor that offers
protection from painful, anxiety-producing emotional experiences at the
price of diminished sensory awareness as well as reduced motor
control. In Reich's use of the term, "armor" represents an
habitual defensive posture and can be compared to the armor worn by
medieval knights. Just as the ponderous armor of medieval knights
became counterproductive with advances in military technology and
changes in social structure, the chronic defensive postures anchored in
an individual's character armor become self-defeating once the
immediate
circumstances requiring the armor have been superseded. Thus, the
dependency situation of early childhood originally may necessitate the
restriction of the child's experience and self-expression in
the interest of survival. Once the child becomes an adult,
however, the set of negative conditions prompting the defensive posture
can be dealt with in a more expedient fashion. Yet if the overall
pattern of muscular contractions has become set, then serious work will
be required to remove the suit of armor. Resistance to such a
process of reducing and eliminating patterns of chronic muscular
tension may be understood as an attempt to ward off anxiety. The
irony lies in the fact that the anxiety has been locked into the
chronically contracted musculature and frozen in the reduced motility
of the organism, and only by facing the anxiety embodied in one's
personal history can a release from the prison of one's own armor be
effected.
Reich's discussion of the arrangement of muscular spasticities in the
body is important in that patterns of imbalance are related to the
manner in which an individual holds back the natural emotional motility
that is functionally identical with being alive. Since patterns
of muscular contraction and imbalance are established in the course of
an individual's life history, they are a key to the biography of the
person. If one is aware of the expressive quality of the bodily
posture of the individual, it becomes possible to infer the general
outline of the person's history without having recourse to verbal
interrogation. To use Lowen's expression, by gaining insight into
the physical dynamics of character structure it becomes possible to
read the "language of the body."
If one considers the skeletal musculature as a whole, it is evident
that, apart from the segmental arrangement of the muscles,
there is a general relationship between the larger skeletal muscles and
the internal organs of the body. In conformity with Reich's
understanding of character armor, it is clear that the larger
skeletal muscles serve the function of protecting the vital centers of
the organism. Such a function, while relatively obvious, is
not
generally noted in standard anatomy and physiology texts, where the
muscular system is described primarily in terms of action upon the
skeletal system for the purpose of effecting movement. [40] The
muscular system itself, to a considerable extent, serves as an
intermediate layer of tissue between the skin and the major body
cavities, the contents of which may be said to represent the vital core
of the person. Such an arrangement is analogous to the
structure of a living cell, which is comprised of a surface
membrane, the inner cytoplasmic substance, and the nucleus. [41]
As Reich has indicated, the expansive flow of unimpeded
biological excitation in living organisms is from the centers of energy
production in the core outward toward the periphery of the body.
It is also
true that
there is a longitudinal movement of energy along the axis of the body
in organisms that have developed to the level at which a head and a
tail end can be distinguished. Interruptions in the flow of
excitation related to chronic restrictive patterns in the musculature
will be anchored in the various segments into which the
organism is divided. In human beings, this means that certain
characteristic patterns of restriction can be distinguished
according
to the stage of development at which self-expression becomes habitually
limited. To cite one example, the importance of the oral zone in
infant life is intimately related to breastfeeding, and a premature
disruption in
the nursing process will be reflected in a disturbance of excitation in
that area. Such a disturbance, in turn, will be evident in the
oral segment of the adult, in whom one will find problems of
neuro-muscular coordination in the region of the mouth, along with
corresponding psychological inhibitions. It is also the case that
any segmental disturbance in the flow of excitation from
core to periphery, anchored in muscular contraction, will necessarily
be reflected in a disorganization of the overall body posture.
This is inevitable, since the muscles which together constitute a given
segment of the body also work together with muscles in other segments
to balance
the person as a whole in the upright position. [42] Thus while
the segmental armoring of the musculature entails a restriction in
motility and in expressive movements, any such restriction will
affect the overall mobility of the
organism and will distort the posture of the person.
Since movement and posture are basic aspects of human adjustment to the
demands of the physical world, understanding the implications of
structural alignment in the field of gravity and the mechanics of gross
movement is an aid in bringing energetic functioning down to earth in a
concrete way.
Among those perspectives focusing on the significance of posture and
movement in relation to personality is the point of view
elaborated by F. Matthias Alexander. In Alexander's words, "...it
is impossible to separate
'mental' and 'physical' processes in any form of human activity."
[43] While Alexander is not unaware of psychological dynamics,
his method focuses on movement patterns of the body. He writes:
"I prefer to call the psycho-physical organism simply 'the self,' and
to write of it as something 'in use,' which 'functions' and 'reacts.'"
[44] Based on independent study and self-exploration, later
confirmed and elaborated in his work with students, Alexander proposed
that there is an almost universal tendency in modern culture
for individuals to shorten the spine as part of habitual restrictive
patterns of movement. The central aspect of this tendency
involves a contraction of the extensor muscles of the
neck involving a total body pattern of excessive tension.
This type of reaction may be understood in terms of the "startle
pattern,"
which has been recorded on film. The startle response is "...
a 'total reflex' that involves the relationship between head and trunk
... [It is] the stereotyped postural response to a sudden loud noise."
[45] It involves especially a strong, coordinated
contraction of the upper trapezius and the sternocleidomastoids, as
well as other muscles.
Certainly such a postural configuration in which the shoulders are
raised and the head is pulled down toward the thoracic cavity is
indicative of
anxiety. The tendency to shorten the spine, which Alexander
calls to attention, is part of an overall body pattern of
contraction. In order to counteract this pattern, Alexander
suggests, it is necessary to allow the spine to extend and
lengthen as an essential part of every body movement. Indeed,
he maintains that the "true and primary movement in each and
every act" is precisely this vertical lengthening." [46] In
order to facilitate a more natural movement pattern and a more balanced
integration of the postural reflexes associated with an improved use
of the self, Alexander outlines a program of psycho-physical
reeducation conforming to three basic principles: "{1} Let the neck be
free (which means merely to see that you do not increase the muscle
tension of the neck in any act). {2} Let the head go forward and
up (which means merely to see that you do not tense the neck muscles by
pulling the head back or down in any act). {3} Let the torso
lengthen and widen out (which merely means to see that you do not
shorten and narrow the back by shortening the spine)." [47]
A number of considerations may be pointed out with respect to
Alexander's perspective and approach. On the one hand, Alexander
is aware of the challenge in carrying out a reeducation of the
individual in terms of neuro-muscular coordination and self-use.
He notes that the problem "... with which we are faced is that human
beings to be educated to-day are already saddled with a more or less
debauched kinesthesia, a condition in which psycho-physical reactions
are abnormal and harmful." [48] The task of the instructor, in
Alexander's method, is to bring about an improved kinesthetic sense by
assisting the pupil to move according to the principle of inhibiting
unnecessary and parasitic actions (such as tightening the neck and
pulling the head down) in order to facilitate natural lengthening of
the spine
as opposed to flexion or hyperextension. In this endeavor,
Alexander is aware that
there is an emotional component, or anxiety pattern, associated with
shortening the spine. He relates this
emotional pattern to the "fear of falling." He points out that in
the average person, "... the fear reflexes are being unduly excited by
the fear of falling, and by the general unreliability of the
psycho-physical processes..." [49] Excessive imbalance in the
total muscular system of the body and a characteristic anxiety pattern
are seen to militate against the feeling of security and the
establishment of dynamic equilibrium in the field of gravity.
Alexander's focus on freedom of the neck as a primary constituent of
poise and equilibrium is in agreement with the observations of
Feldenkrais, who writes: "The first manifestations of consciousness
will appear with the control of the head which allows the child to
follow and direct itself toward moving objects or sources of
sound. Soon afterwards, the head begins to right itself to a
special position in which the plane of the occipital opening indicating
the anatomical orientation of the head on the atlas, is slightly rising
forward... At the beginning, the head tends reflexively to this
position, in whatever position the body may be." [50] The
balanced functional relationship of head and neck is a primary
factor in movement and is an important element in maintaining what
Wilfred
Barlow has called "postural homeostasis," that is "... the steady state
in which the body keeps itself balanced." [51]
Another factor which serves as a helpful organizing principle for the
analysis of posture is the segmental arrangement of the human body in
its relation to the earth's gravitational field. In the words of
Ida Rolf, "Symmetrical, balanced pattern in a man's segmented aggregate
of material units allows his lesser [energy] field to be reinforced by
the
greater [gravitational] field of the earth." [52] The primary
segmental units to
which Rolf refers are the head, thorax, pelvis, and legs. The
question of posture then becomes a matter of the easy alignment of the
major body segments in the field of gravity. Feldenkrais
has speculated that, with adequate knowledge of the dynamics of the
body
segments, it is theoretically possible to "measure posture." [53]
A principal objective criterion of adequate posture, whether measurable
or not, would be the easy alignment of the segments of the body in the
field of gravity such that superfluous muscle tension is absent.
This would correspond to a low moment of inertia in a state of dynamic
equilibrium. To a considerable degree, such equilibrium
corresponds to the potential for free self-expression of the
organism. With respect to motility, true dynamic equilibrium
involves unimpeded flow of biological energy. Kinesthetically, it
entails a well-ordered sense of coordination and a body image rooted in
the unimpeded flow of proprioceptive nerve impulses, with the
cooperation of those other facets of the human nervous system crucial
to the spatial orientation and the coordination of organismic
responses. Under the pressure of present environmental
circumstances of a social and cultural nature, such postural balance
can only be approximated. Nonetheless, one
of the advantages of considering movement and posture in relation to
personality is
that movement patterns and structural organization of the individual
are objective, palpable factors integral to the life of the
person. Such factors reveal a great deal about the subjective
world of the individual. The reason why this is so is that
posture, movement, and personality are
directly related to the sensory awareness of the individual.
In his discussion of the formation of mental conception, F.M. Alexander
makes the following statement: "... our approach to life generally, our
activities, beliefs, emotions, judgments, in whatever sphere, are
conditioned by... the standard of reliability of our individual sensory
appreciation." [54] Stated simply, the way we see the world
depends on our sensory awareness. If our sensations are numbed,
inhibited, distorted, exaggerated, or perverted, so too will be our
vision of the world and our conception of life in general, of others,
and of ourselves. [55] If the musculature of our legs and pelvic
structure is chronically contracted, we will "understand" rigidity to
be the inevitable price to be paid for security. If our shoulders
are hunched and our chests deflated, we will look at the world through
a perspective of despair. If our back is strained with the burden
of an exaggerated lumbar curve, then we will feel spineless in the face
of life's adversities. The set jaw of characterological
determination and the stiff-necked attitude of habitual rebelliousness
make of reality an adversary to be conquered. The withdrawn stare
framed by the spastic musculature of an immobilized ocular segment
allows only the mirror image of a fantastic and receding dream to reach
our awareness. Pinched gluteals and overly tight abdominal
muscles
require that we approach the world as something to be squeezed for dear
life. How we perceive and act in the world is integrally related
to our posture, movement, and personality.
All basic physiological and psychological processes involve a
structural and functional component such that the degree of stress to
which a person is subjected mediates biochemical and neurological
activities. [56] This is true at the deep emotional level of
organ sensations, in terms of which it becomes possible to
understand the truth of such expressions as being "moved" by desire
(sudden increase in organismic motility) and feeling one's heart "open
up" (parasympathetic excitation of the cardiovascular system).
Wilhelm Reich has emphasized the significance of organ sensations in
providing a
solid basis for contact with oneself and the world. He comments:
"The living organism perceives itself and its environment
only through its sensations. On the kind of sensations depends
the kind of judgments developed, the reactions based on these
judgments, and the overall picture commonly known as 'world image.'"
[57] Although form follows function in the development of human
structure, it is also true that once a given structure is established,
that structure mediates functioning. One aspect of structure
which evolves in terms of responses of the organism to the conditions
of the environment is posture. Together, posture, movement, and
personality constitute a functional whole. The question
arises, however: does the organism merely "respond" to the pressures of
the environment, or are there forces within the organism which actively
seek gratification? Are there needs which demand
satisfaction? Are there desires which require fulfillment?
These questions lead to a consideration of the fundamental needs of the
person.
The
Needs of the Person
Along with other animals, human beings experience certain basic
needs which must be fulfilled in order for existence to continue.
One way to characterize such needs is to designate them as
"instincts." The word "instinct" refers literally to the
experience of being "poked, aroused, or incited from within."
[58] Another word which may at times be used interchangeably with
the word "instinct" is the word "drive," which the dictionary defines
as "... an inner urge that stimulates a response..." [59]
Technically, however, an instinct must be distinguished from a
drive. Ashley Montagu writes: "A drive is a very different thing
from an instinct. An instinct is a phylogenetically determined
fixed action pattern designed to react to a specific stimulus in an
organized and biologically adaptive way that is characteristic of a
given species." [60] A drive, on the other hand, "... is a
tendency, initiated by shifts in physiological balance, to be sensitive
to certain stimuli of a certain class and respond in any of a variety
of ways that are related to the attainment of a specific goal."
[61] Given these considerations, it is interesting to note the
manner in which Freud has addressed the issue of human
needs. Freud writes: "By a
'drive' we can
understand, for the moment, nothing other than the psychical
representative of an inner, somatic, continuously flowing source of
stimulation, as distinct from a 'stimulus,' which is produced by single
excitations coming from without." [62] In terms of Freud's early
considerations, the two
primary drives are identified as hunger and sex. He writes: "I
took as my starting point the saying of the poet-philosopher, Schiller,
that 'hunger and love are what moves the world.'" [63] If, for
our present purposes, we focus attention on hunger and sex as two
primary human urges originating within the organism and demanding
satisfaction by way of release of tension, some considerations
may be ventured regarding the relationship between human needs and the
development of posture, movement, and personality in the individual.
According to Reich's perspective, the basic life processes may
be understood in terms of organismic pulsation. [64] This view
suggests that life, functioning within an enclosing membrane, expands
and contracts rhythmically. As part of the process of expansion
and contraction, the living organism incorporates nutritional elements
from the environment, thus adding to the quantity of energy enclosed
within the membrane. Part of the added quantity is used to
replace energy expended in the process of living. As an aspect of
this process, metabolic waste products are excreted from the
organism. Some of the nutritional elements added to the organism
are utilized in growth. Energy in excess of the requirements for
survival and physiological growth is discharged in movement. One
form of movement, culminating in an intense release of biological
energy is the orgastic convulsion, which Reich has described as a basic
means of discharging excess biological tension in living
organisms. Orgastic discharge in this basic sense
designates a natural function operating on the unicellular
level (e.g., reproduction
through division in the amoeba) as well as on the multicellular level (e.g., the sexual orgasm in human
beings). Following Freud, we can suggest that in human beings
hunger is "psychically represented" as a sensation of "lack," while
sexual tension is experienced as a sensation of longing for pleasurable
release from a state of excitation and fullness. There is a
sense, then, in which the two drives - sex and hunger - are
interrelated dialectically in terms of the energetic charging and
discharging of the organism.
If the dual relationship of hunger and sex is brought into the
foreground as a means of reflecting on the basic developmental process
of human beings, it is possible to understand the fundamental
importance of need gratification in the formation of human posture,
movement patterns, and personality. All of these three features
of human life are rooted in the basic drives of the person.
Because of the malleability of the human organism and the relative
paucity of inborn patterns of behavior in human beings, there is
considerable latitude in the range of human postures, movement
patterns, and personality types. This range is largely reflective
of organismic responses to environmental pressures exerted during the
formative period of individual growth. If character structure is
to evolve in a healthy fashion, then human needs must be gratified in
basic ways. Otherwise, chronic disturbances in the gratification
of basic human drives will be embodied in distortions in posture,
movement, and personality. This is necessarily the case owing to
the relationship between disturbances in need gratification and
patterns of habitual, excessive neuro-muscular rigidity and
disorganization. When the needs of the organism are repeatedly
frustrated - especially when this has occurred during the formative
stages of development - the person is literally thrown out of
balance. If this process is severe, we say in popular language
that the person is "unbalanced." In fact, the individual
who fits this description will suffer from a loss of balance that is
both psychological and somatic.
If the capacity for meaningful, pleasurable living is to be established
in spite of a personal history of deprivation, then the dynamics of
posture, movement, and personality must be integrated in a positive
way. In such a process of personal reeducation, character itself
must undergo constructive change and growth. We may say,
therefore, that the integration of the person in terms of posture,
movement, and personality is a basic index of healthy human functioning.
